Background

In 1974, the U.S. Department of Justice’s Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) identified the need for additional prevention and intervention measures in juvenile delinquency. Juvenile delinquency is a major concern in areas such as justice, law-making, social psychology, learning, and development. As America contends with the existence of juvenile delinquency, the country cannot ignore the increased rate of delinquent activities committed by female juveniles as reported by the juvenile court system (Guthrie, Cooper, Brown, & Metzger, 2012). Research shows despite a decline in the arrests related to juvenile crimes since 1994, the number of females arrested for violent crimes has increased (Guthrie et al., 2012). Puzzanchera (2012) noted more than 31 million youths entered the juvenile court in 2009 and 28% of the delinquency cases involved adolescent females. Although female delinquents remain disproportionately represented, their numbers have been increased as the U.S. crime data from 2000 to 2009 indicates (Carrington, 2013). However, the research body concerning the gender-based differences and recommended interventions is still quite limited as compared to the research body concerning male delinquents (Thompson & Morris, 2013).

With this situation in mind, Guthrie et al. (2012) acknowledged today’s juvenile justice system is ill equipped to address various issues faced by the female delinquents. Paraschiv (2013) noted girls are not a priority within the juvenile justice system and the juvenile justice system faces a challenge to develop gender-based strategies to accommodate females. The purpose of this research is to determine the views expressed by the case managers regarding the treatment provided to the female delinquents and its ability to rehabilitate, reduce recidivism, and promote successful transition among female delinquents.

Problem Statement

Research shows an increase in violent crimes among the females is consistent with current juvenile delinquency trends; however, juvenile delinquency focused solely on the males prior to 1960 (Balthazar & Cook, 2014).  The number of arrests involving violent crimes by females has increased, thus, narrowing the difference in delinquency rates across both genders (Balthazar & Cook, 2014).  This increase in violent delinquency by the females raises the questions as to why this is happening and what is being done about it. According to Balthazar and Cook (2014), the juvenile justice system has limited information about the issues related to the female delinquents and the means to treat them. Wright (2014) suggested limited resources make it difficult for the juvenile justice system to tailor programs towards female offenders because they are quite a small percentage of the total number of juvenile offenders. While the percentage of the overall number of female delinquents is small, this phenomenon has continued to increase on an annual basis over the last three decades (Balthazar & Cook, 2014).  Wright (2014) noted the advantages to implementing more gender-responsive programs within the justice system such as an increased opportunity for rehabilitation. When implementing gender-responsive programs, the stakeholders must ensure the relevance to the needs of the delinquent (male or female) and consider factors specifically linked to female delinquency when developing such programs.

Although the female delinquent population is smaller than that of the male delinquents, this does not warrant ignoring the issues faced by the female delinquent population. The justice system should implement the best practices to treat the female delinquents in order to reduce the juvenile delinquency rates. The ability to better treat female delinquents decreases the likelihood of recidivism and increases the justice system’s ability to affect this phenomenon. Therefore, implementing gender-responsive treatments in the juvenile justice system will decrease the female delinquency rate and enhance their social stability and productivity.

Purpose of the Study

The study is intended to examine the factors that contribute towards juvenile delinquency among the female adolescents and determine the necessity for gender-responsive treatment and rehabilitation programs. Wright (2014) posited gender-responsive delinquency treatment and rehabilitation programs are necessary for success because men and women have different needs and, moreover, the types of crimes committed often differ by the gender. Statistically, females are more likely to commit nonviolent crimes and are less of a communal threat than the males (Wright, 2014). Juvenile courts have dealt with boys primarily under the delinquency jurisdiction and with girls under the status offense jurisdiction, leading to variations in as to how female delinquents are processed in courts and mental health facilities. The Juvenile and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 improved these variations but not enough to affect the treatment and rehabilitative programs for females (Wright, 2014).

Nature of the Study

This study will use a qualitative, multiple-case study and will focus on the case managers who work with adolescents participating in gender-responsive programs in the juvenile justice system. The researchers will seek their views on treatments provided to the female delinquents as well as the treatments’ ability to rehabilitate, decrease recidivism, and promote successful transition into the community.

As Yin (2003) noted, this approach helps to understand the real-life phenomena of female delinquency in a holistic fashion while also reviewing the treatment processes for female delinquents within the justice system. Additionally, this approach provides more objective means of analyzing the data gathered from numerous individuals and will also enable the researcher to explore and compare various programs mentioned by the case managers (Yin, 2003). Furthermore, comparing the experiences of actual case managers with the literature studies will help evaluate the need for gender-responsive treatment programs which could lead to rehabilitation and reduced recidivism rate. Data collection methods will include interviews with the case managers in the West Texas Department of Juvenile Justice, particularly, in detention centers.

Before conducting interviews, the researcher will provide the information about the research in order to establish rapport and trust with the interviewees. The preferred interview method is open-ended questions, as this will allow follow-up questions to gather in-depth information.

The multiple-case approach illuminates participants’ views and experiences, resulting in an enhanced depth of the research while also improving the organizational knowledge concerning female delinquency (Yin, 2003). In addition, various perspectives on the use of gender-responsive treatment may be obtained.  Garraza et al. (2011) proposed girls enter the system with more severe problems than boys do, therefore, an increased awareness of gender-based treatment is necessary. In addition, researchers have found current programs allowing co-ed group sessions can interrupt female participants’ healing process and may also inadvertently cause them re-experience earlier traumas (Rieckmann et al., 2011). Neely-Barnes and Whitted (2011) underlined the importance of providers acknowledging gender-based differences in treating females and males. This acquired knowledge of differences may present a strong argument for improving treatment programs, thus, reducing recidivism and increasing delinquents’ chances of successfully transitioning into the society. Finally, this study will provide insights regarding the effectiveness of gender-responsive approach since its inception.

Research Questions

This study has been designed to determine how female delinquents are served with gender-responsive programs which can meet their developmental and specific needs; leading to improved treatment programs and reduced recidivism and resulting in successful transitioning of prior female offenders into the society. This study was designed, in part, to address significant evidence which shows male-centered offender treatment programs are ineffective in case of female offenders (van der Knaap, Alberda, Oosterveld, & Born, 2012).

The study investigates the following research questions.

RQ1: What rehabilitation efforts have case managers observed for male and female delinquents?

RQ2: What are case managers perceptions regarding how current treatment could be improved to specifically meet the needs of female delinquents?

RQ3: What are case managers’ perceptions and daily experiences regarding the impact of current treatment programs on recidivism among female delinquents?

RQ4: How do case managers think the current treatment influences female delinquents’ transition into the community? How does this transition differ from that of male delinquents?

Theoretical Framework

The framework of this study encompasses the feminist theory from a criminology perspective, better known as the feminist criminology theory, which broadly addresses the issues relative to females and crime (Chesney-Lind, 1988). The focus on crime has traditionally been associated with males, therefore, most research and theories have focused on the justice system’s response to male offenders while ignoring the needs of the female offenders. The overarching goal of the feminist criminology theory is to bridge the gap within the justice system. Feminist criminology theory also aims to enhancing the understanding of male and female offenders and the system’s way of addressing their delinquent behaviors (Chesney-Lind, 1988). Furthermore, it provides a theoretical explanation for the crimes involving females, programs offered, means of responding to female offenders, female case managers within the corrections field, and the special needs of females within the justice system.

This study will identify the perceptions of the case managers who have implemented, applied, and observed the outcomes of various approaches designed, particularly, for the female offenders. The earliest the key factors relevant to the treatment of female juvenile delinquents are identified, the sooner more efficient treatment(s) can be developed for them (Oesterle, Hawkins, Fagan, Abbott, & Catalano, 2010). Efficient treatments will provide an increased understanding of the female delinquents, thus, reducing their chances of becoming repeat offenders or being subjected to the juvenile justice system (Srsic & Rice, 2012).

Significance of the Study

According to Wright (2014), the justice system’s limited ability to fund gender-responsive programs continues to challenge the treatment of the female delinquents. Although there have been improvements in this area, the increasing number of violent offenses by female juveniles suggests treatment resources are not keeping up with violent female delinquencies. The proposed study will explore case managers’ perceptions regarding the treatment of female delinquents and its ability to rehabilitate, reduce recidivism, and promote successful transition into the society. Understanding case managers’ views can help determine the need for improved treatment as well as identify areas for improvement. The study results will provide juvenile justice stakeholders with a spectrum of case managers’ perspectives on treating female delinquents and decreasing the probability of female delinquency. In addition, the results will increase knowledge of treatments for female delinquents as well as program features that improve the success rate of such programs. Furthermore, the results may require additional training requirements for all parties working with the delinquents.

Definition of Terms

The following terms and phrases appear in this study:

Adolescents: Youths who are transitioning from puberty to adulthood, ranging from 12-17 years of age.

Behavioral Health Issues: An inclusive term that includes many issues for which someone would seek help from a professional, such as suicidal behavior, substance use disorder, and domestic and relationship violence (McDonald, Curtis-Schaeffer, Theiler, & Howard, 2014). This term is used interchangeably or in conjunction with emotional and mental health issues.

Childhood Trauma: Physical, sexual, and/or psychological abuse occurring during one’s childhood (CSOSA, 2013).

Criminal Justice System: An institution, agency, or individual who manages or provides supervision to an offender who enters into the legal system (Andrews & Dowden, 2006).

Gender-Responsive Treatment: Creating an environment through site selection, staff selection, program development, content, and material that reflects an understanding of the realities of women’s lives, and is responsive to the issues of the clients (Covington, 2002).

Mental Health Issues: Having been assessed and found in need of mental health services including medication, treatment, and/or hospitalization for psychological issues (CSOSA, 2013).

Offender: An individual found guilty, convicted, and sentenced for a criminal act and remains under the jurisdiction of a releasing authority (CSOSA, 2013).

Recidivism: Having lost the privilege to remain in the community after being sentenced to a period of probation, supervised release, and/or parole due to a new arrest or conviction and/or violating release conditions (CSOSA, 2013).

Risk and Needs Assessment: A tool used to assess the extent to which an offender requires support services and treatment interventions (CSOSA, 2013).

Limitations

There are several limitations to this study due to the qualitative research approach which involves the use of interviews, documents, and records reviewed from the organizations’ reports. As Qu and Dumay (2011) noted, interview data may be limited due to the distorted responses based on the competency and moral levels of the interviewees. Additionally, the review of documents completed by the staff at the detention centers may be incomplete or inaccurate (Stemler, 2001).

Summary

This study will examine the need for gender-based treatment to effectively change the behavior of adjudicated juvenile delinquents. Furthermore, it will identify the gender-responsive needs that must be addressed to reduce delinquent behaviors among the female adolescents. A multiple-case study approach is employed to explore the developmental differences between the female and the male adolescents. After identifying these differences, gender-based treatment will be examined, if warranted, using the feminist criminology theory (Chesney-Lind, 1988). The findings will help the social services and juvenile justice court systems apply and implement more gender-responsive treatment services and programs. The provision of gender-responsive treatments, services, and programs could reduce the delinquent population within the juvenile justice system, leading to a decline in the number of the adolescents adjudicated through the juvenile court system. This qualitative study seeks to provide the current information in the area of female delinquency as well as illustrate the importance of considering gender-specific treatments. The upcoming chapters include an extensive literature review in the area of female delinquency and gender-responsive treatments. Chapter 3 will focus on the methodology featuring the qualitative approach in the multiple-case study.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

This chapter presents an analytical and synthesized review of the literature, framing the purpose and rationale of this research. The intent of this literature review is to describe the relevant literature exploring the state of female delinquency among girls ages 12-17 as well as the programs or treatment approaches that provide successful results in treating the female delinquents. Female delinquency is prevalent in many countries across the world, and assessing approaches to deal with female offenders is crucial due to the limited research body in this area.

Among the many theories that have attempted to explain the causes of female delinquency, feminist criminology theory has been selected to provide the theoretical framework for this study. Literature review for this qualitative study focuses on the major themes that have emerged from published dissertations, peer-reviewed articles, and online databases including EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SAGE, Harvard Business, and the thesis and dissertation databases. This chapter reviews the historical background of female delinquency, juvenile justice system treatments, early intervention and treatment programs, and, finally, the treatments for women.

Overview of Female Delinquency

Certain policies in the criminal justice system are targeted at the female adolescents.  These gender-responsive policies provide the guidelines for addressing trauma, substance use, economic oppression, and mental health in this population (van Wormer, 2010). However, the principles of treatment for delinquency and crime prevention are the same for both men and women. According to van Wormer (2010), the unique needs of female delinquents can be met through vocational, career development, and life skills training which addresses women’s issues and teaches them empowerment and assertiveness. Many researchers agree the juvenile justice system is in need of improvement to adequately address the special needs of female youth who might not adhere to the law (Watson & Edelman, 2012). The drivers of female delinquency include broken or dysfunctional relationships, substance abuse, and childhood victimization (Barlow, 2014).

Features of Female Delinquent Behavior

The women tend to commit delinquent acts on a less chronic basis than the men (Zahn et al., 2010). Major contributors to delinquency among the female adolescents include truancy and running away from home; often motivated by the desire to escape from physical and sexual victimization. In running away from these various forms of victimization and illegal adult behavior at home, these female adolescents become vulnerable to behaviors that violate the law, in particular, prostitution and drug or substance abuse. Research on the female adolescents who act aggressively and assault others suggests their behaviors can be understood in the context of their peer groups, experiences, communities, and family context (Zahn et al., 2010).

Factors Contributing to Female Delinquency

The researchers have identified various factors that may contribute to female delinquency. Wise (2012) lists factors such as family dynamics, sexual abuse, early puberty, anxiety, and depression as the main risk factors behind delinquency. Sheehan, Mclvor, and Trotter (2010) cited education and employment. Other factors that contribute to the instance of delinquency include educational failures such as expulsion, suspension, repetition of grade levels, and placement in special rooms (Pierson, 2013). According to Redding (2010), the female judicial clients tend to be single parent who dropped out of school due to pregnancy, substance abuse, or dysfunctional family dynamics. OJJDP found 64% of these judicial clients had claimed not to have completed high school. Broken relationships drive young women to drop out of school, forcing them to fend for themselves. Those who suffer abuse at a young age can be traumatized, and many run away from their homes (Sherman, 2012). As a result of their inability to continue education, women sometimes end up in illegal professions such as sex work. In addition, there is a direct relationship between age and delinquency. According to Chaneles (2014) and Balthazar and Cook (2014), the peak age for delinquency is 15.

The substance abuse is also associated with female criminal activity. The abuse of drugs such as alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and miraa (also known as khat) affects family relationships and mental health, and consequently, the users might violate the law. There is a significant association between an adolescent delinquency and the use and abuse of heroin, cocaine, alcohol, and marijuana and delinquency (Whitesell, Bachand, Peel, & Brown, 2013). The drug users might engage in criminal activities including prostitution, suicide, and stealing from relatives or friends. The women might use drugs to forget their problems and the drug use is also often linked to sexual, physical, and emotional abuse.

The women might also participate in criminal activities due to mental health issues (e.g., anxiety, depression) (Latessa, Listwan, & Koetzle, 2014). As stated, an abuse at the hands of family members and friends increases the risk of female delinquency. Women exposed to high stress levels often exhibit risk-taking behaviors (Zahn et al., 2010). Most of the women in the female juvenile justice system have a history of sexual or physical abuse and neglect (Morizot & Kazemian, 2014, p. 406). The maltreatment breaks down the relationships between female adolescents and their parents and romantic partners. In a study concerning the relationship between an offending behavior and the child maltreatment, Topitzes, Mersky, and Reynolds (2011) concluded childhood abuse is a contributing factor in female crimes. Lanctôt, Ruiter, and Vugt (2015) found the victims of sexual and physical abuse, neglect, and other types of maltreatment frequently commit violent offenses.

Wanamaker (2015) attributed female and male adolescent violence to poor parental supervision, parental aggression, and conflicts (e.g., harsh discipline). Female adolescents are frequently the victims of physical and sexual abuse, and studies have shown women who exhibit antisocial behavior might have suffered sexual abuse in the past (Chesney-Lind & Shelden, 2013). Similarly, those who engage in violence generally have a history of experiencing violence. The violence among young women mostly involves fighting with siblings or parents at home or in school (Feld, 2014). Women with deficient social bonds are often exposed to antisocial influences (Morizot & Kazemian, 2014, p. 406). The trauma resulting from different types of abuse motivates women to run away from home and their families, and some who become involved in abusive relationships engage in criminal activity and seek revenge against the perpetrators of the abuse (Sherman, 2012).

Another contributing factor to female violence is the early onset of puberty (Javdani, Rodriguez, Nichols, Emerson, & Donenberg, 2014). The researchers have identified a link between early puberty and family dysfunction. When combined with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, mental health disorders, and emotional and cognitive deficiencies, the results of early puberty are negative behavioral outcomes. Early physical maturity poses a particular risk to young women due to inconsistency between their physical signs of development and the development of their emotional and cognitive systems (Javdani, Sadeh, & Verona, 2011). According to the researchers, young women who mature early are more likely to engage in delinquency and high-risk behaviors, and have an increased likelihood of exposure to violent intimate partners. Most adolescent girls ages 12-17 experience a maturity gap (Zahn et al., 2010). Those who engage in delinquent behaviors might be attempting to achieve autonomy and independence and to escape parental control.

Family influences also contribute to the criminal activity. Women, throughout their lives, are strongly connected to the family which acts as a protective source. Children and adolescents receive protection from delinquency through parental monitoring and supervision. When the protective familial bonds weaken due to violence, instability, sexual abuse, and/or inadequate parental supervision, young women are likely to engage in high-risk behaviors, leading to delinquency. Ineffective parenting practices (e.g., constant fault-finding, inconsistent discipline) might also drive youths into criminal activities. Additionally, family members and relatives (e.g., siblings, mothers, fathers, cousins) who engage in a criminal activity may also encourage young women to perform similar behaviors. Parental drug abuse and deviance also expose female adolescents to criminal activities.

Gender-Appropriate Treatment for Female Delinquents

The juvenile justice system can benefit from various gender-responsive programs aimed at addressing the needs of female adolescents (Walker, Muno, & Sullivan-Colgazier, 2012). Increased empirical and theoretical attention to delinquency among female youth could help solve important issues such as mental health and various types of abuse (physical, mental, and verbal). According to the Berkeley Center for Criminal Justice (2010), California operates gender-responsive programs, funded with $3.5 million provided by the state’s Juvenile Justice Crime Prevention Act. California’s female population in the juvenile justice system reports high rates of childhood traumatic events, and researchers have examined interventions related to traumatic events. Smith, Chamberlain, and Deblinger (2012) found most community-based interventions have limited capacity to treat female delinquents. However, Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC), a worldwide community-based intervention program designed for chronically delinquent adolescents, has had successes in treating delinquents (Smith et al., 2012). Like most programs, MTFC was originally designed to treat male delinquents but was later adapted to treat female delinquents.

Gender-responsive programs serve as rehabilitation tools (Wright, 2014). Male and female teenagers have different needs and tend to commit different crimes. Launched in 2013, Project Uncaged specifically targeted young women in the juvenile system. The women in detention learn art (e.g., visual arts, prose and poetry writing) and better ways of dealing with their emotions, in order to create future plans, reflect on past mistakes, and develop strategies to improve their lives (Wright, 2014). The participants learn to express themselves and communicate their feelings in a safe environment. A focus on productive activities helps them develop a positive outlook. In addition to providing fun activities, the program teaches coping techniques to participants to deal with their issues. The participants are encouraged to establish positive relationships with their guardians or parents and are treated to a special dinner upon completion of the program where the participants share food and their artistic creations. The environment conducive to free sharing creates a safe space for the participants.

Juvenile Justice Center (JJC) schools offer Title I programs aimed at helping disadvantaged children achieve academic success. This alternative program helps the adolescents within the juvenile detention programs transition into public school programs. The program provides certified teachers who provide year-round daily instruction in language arts, math, science, and social studies. Ultimately, it provides a second chance to the delinquents who have had struggled. In addition, the female offenders in the juvenile justice system can participate in 360 Project where they receive training in dog-care and learn values such as patience and empathy (Wright, 2014). Adolescents engaged in delinquency can also take part in a diversion program called Reading for Life which aims to foster good learning skills.

The JJC endeavors to improve its services to meet the needs of female youths and adults who respond to social influences in different manners (Feld, 2014). Mentoring is a common method for addressing the needs of at-risk youth, including female offenders in detention centers and on probation. DuBois, Portillo, Rhodes, Silverthorn, and Valentine (2011) reported 5,000 mentoring programs serve 3 million youths. Youths who have mentors, are less likely to skip school, drink alcohol, or engage in violence. Intervention programs focus on children who have been confined by their parents, neglected or abused, live in abject poverty, have disabilities, are pregnant or parenting early, and participate in the JJC. Mentoring can be informal (e.g. teachers and other adults engaged with youth), formal (e.g., volunteers interacting with youths), community-based (e.g., participation in such as activities as sports and visits to museums), and school-based (e.g., presence of positive role models) (DuBois et al., 2011).

Education can help women access mental health services, employment, housing, and legal assistance in cases of sexual harassment as well as navigate the juvenile justice system. Courts, specifically for the female juveniles, include the First Judicial Circuit (Hawaii), Second Judicial Court (Nevada), Juvenile Drug Court (Texas), and the Sixth Judicial Circuit Court (South Dakota) (Schaefer, 2008). On set dates, female juveniles go to treatment centers which provide services aimed at restoring justice in the community. These female-only treatment days have proven to be highly cost-effective.

Researchers working on gender responsiveness within the juvenile justice system have recommended staff members receive training in order to better respond to female-specific needs (Berkeley Center for Criminal Justice, 2010). Studies have shown female offenders are likely to engage in early sexual activity, thus, juvenile justice programs and services should address parenting, pregnancy, and reproductive health and staff should use assessment tools that have been designed with female populations in mind. According to Brumbaugh, Walters, and Winterfield (2010), risk assessment tools assess the likelihood of outcomes such as attendance at court appearances and the potential for reoffending on the basis of factors such as criminal histories, participants’ education level, substance abuse problems, mental health issues, and number and types of previous offenses. The use of such tools predicts future violence based on past violence. The effective use of these tools decreases the likelihood that women with aggressive and anti-social behavior tendencies may repeat such behaviors again. Need-based or treatment-focused tools can also help treat disorders.

In some cases, detention might not address the main causes of female delinquency such as separation from family members (Berkeley Center for Criminal Justice, 2010). Detention facilities that might re-traumatize female delinquents must be changed. Detention centers should employ mental health professionals and other support workers to meet the mental and physical needs of those who have suffered physical, emotional, or sexual abuse. Disciplinary techniques such as isolation, physical confrontation, and restraint, might cause re-traumatization. In addition, detention environments characterized by isolation, loss of privacy, and insensitivity from staff members might increase negative feelings and lead to loss of self-control. Community-based programs are best at treating problems such as familial trauma and psychological disorders, and offer a less traumatic way of providing services to female offenders. The JJC has increased its community-based alternatives to allow female youth to receive treatment in their communities. Such programs encourage communication, provide physical and emotional safety assurance, and create meaningful relationships (Wright, 2014).

Increased Rate of Female Delinquency in the Juvenile Justice System

Female criminal behavior is perceived as less serious than male criminal behavior. Historically, women have committed minor offenses as compared to men on the average (Zahn et al., 2010) but women’s participation rate in violent crime has been rising (Banarjee, Islam, & Khatun, 2015). A drive to implement gender-responsive programs has emerged in response to this issue. Kerig and Schindler (2013) reported a dramatic, decade-long rise in the female arrest rate, which has generated interest in understanding the gender differences that drive delinquency. This trend has prompted the implementation of many gender-responsive interventions to reduce anti-social behaviors among female youth. Questions about the assumptions that guide gender-responsive approaches toward female youth in the juvenile system have also arisen. These questions include:

• Does evidence support the claim that gender differences in risk-taking behaviors cause female youth to commit acts of delinquency?
• Are delinquency interventions less effective for male than female offenders?
• Do interventions targeting female youth have different levels of effectiveness?

From 1990 to 2004, the number of female arrests increased until female youth accounted for at least 30% of all juvenile arrests (Redding, 2010). The female offenders accounted for only 11% of all juvenile arrests in the United States in 1980 but this percentage had risen to 18% by 2000. In 2008, California saw 58,843 female arrests which included 3.5% of the state’s female population ages 12–17 (Berkeley Center for Criminal Justice, 2010). In addition, there were 58,195 referrals for probation, resulting in the filing of 20,525 petitions in juvenile courts. The rising number of arrests puzzled juvenile justice system experts who wondered why female youth were increasingly involved in delinquency.

Nature of Female Crimes

Women tend to commit crimes such as shoplifting, larceny, and writing bad checks (Redding, 2010). A nationally representative study found 71.9% of women in a California prison had been convicted of these crimes compared to 49.7% of men (Bloom & Covington, 1998). Other common offenses among women include fraud, prostitution, and drug trafficking. The Berkeley Center for Criminal Justice (2010) reported prostitution is the most common offense among female youth on probation. In 2008, 696 female offenders received probation referrals after arrests for prostitution. However, most women receive convictions for drug-related crimes. Many have relationships with men who engage in drug-related crimes and these women may serve as subordinates to the men. The women may act as couriers during drug distribution, putting themselves at risk of violating the law. When women sell drugs on their own, they tend to conduct small trades. But multiple transactions in pursuit of higher earnings expose women to higher risks of detection.

The crimes women commit tend to entail a relational element: they first get involved in crime as a help to a male partner and later branch out on their own. Fifty percent of women, who are criminal offenders, commit the crime in collaboration with a male partner. Between 1996 and 2005, women participated in violations of liquor laws (driving under the influence of alcohol), embezzlement, and transactions involving stolen property (Redding, 2010).

Although women tend to commit less violent crimes than men, the percentage of reported assaults involving female assailants has increased over the last decades as a result of compulsory arrests in domestic violence cases (Muftić & Baumann, 2012). In addition, substance abuse is a main contributing factor towards women committing major crimes. In 2010, 32.6% of the incarcerated women had abused drugs (Lima, 2014) and this rate is, especially, high among women who commit homicide. Evidence suggests women with personality disorders or substance abuse addiction tend to be violent. When women use drugs, they might feel ashamed and blame themselves. Among the incarcerated women who have committed violent crimes, 29.7% killed or assaulted a partner or a relative (Lima, 2014). As far as homicide incidents are concerned, most female offenders have either killed children (25.7%) or other family members (Lima, 2014). Lim (2014) posited that 45% of the women have killed their partners due to instances of physical abuse.

Little research has been conducted on serial murders committed by women due to the small number of female serial killers in the judicial system. Women rarely commit murder but when they do, their crimes differ from those of men (Lima, 2014). Women rarely torture their victims and tend to inflict less pain or physical damage. They may lure the victims and sometimes poison them. Female serial killers tend to come from dysfunctional families or might have suffered abuse at an early age (Lima, 2014).

Early Intervention and Prevention Programs

Juvenile crime affects every U.S. citizen (Samimsky, 2010) including parents, teachers, neighbors, families, victims, bystanders, and perpetrators. Some programs aimed at reducing delinquency rates have succeeded while others have failed. Programs that start after a person has committed a deviant act tend to be less successful because the individual has already developed anti-social behavior. Effective interventions must occur before the occurrence of a delinquent behavior. They should be comprehensive and address the mediators of certain target problems. The younger children are when they participate in such programs, the greater the reduction in crime that might be achieved. Saminsky (2010) defined early intervention programs as those that take place before birth through early adolescence before children exhibit delinquent behaviors.

Most schools in the United States have adopted social and emotional learning (SEL) programs which teach students self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, responsible decision making, and relationship skills. According to the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (2014), these programs foster the development of essential competencies such as understanding and managing emotions, setting achievable goals, making responsible decisions, and forming and maintaining relationships. Once children have developed these competencies, they achieve higher academic performance, experience less emotional stress, create fewer problems, and exhibit more positive social behaviors (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011).

Durlak et al. (2011) examined the effects of SEL on conduct problems (e.g., non-compliance, disruptive classroom behavior, delinquent acts, bullying, and suspension from school). After analyzing the results of 112 studies, Durlak et al. (2011) found that students who took part in SEL programs were involved in fewer conduct problems than those who had not. Durlak et al. (2011) also analyzed the effects of SEL programs on internalizing behavior, particularly the mental issues of depression, anxiety, social withdrawal, and stress. The meta-analysis of 49 studies showed that student participants in SEL programs experienced low levels of emotional distress (Durlak et al., 2011).

Due to increased instances of bullying in schools, anti-bullying interventions have emerged. Bullying leads to fear, harm, and distress, and youths may display undesirable behaviors including punching, hitting, psychological abuse (e.g., social exclusion), and verbal abuse (e.g., teasing, name calling) (Gladden, Alana, Merle, & Corey, 2014). In 2010–2011, 27.8% of the American students reported experiencing bullying and 9% reported experiencing cyber bullying (Roberts, Jana, Jennifer, & Thomas, 2013). Cook et al. (2010) and Mishna, and Khoury-Kassabri, Gadalla, and Daciuk (2012) estimated the rates of bullying and cyber bullying among children are 10–50% and 30%, respectively. Intervention programs which target bullying include conflict resolution, therapeutic treatments, curricular approaches, and efforts to raise awareness among the stakeholders (Stop Bullying Now, 2010).

Sargent Shriver, an appointee of President Lyndon B. Johnson to handle his Great Society programs in the 1960s, launched the Head Start program which aimed to provide opportunities to economically disadvantaged Americans to pull themselves out of poverty (Bailey & Duquette, 2014). Head Start begins early in the lives of children and uses a comprehensive, holistic approach to deal with various aspects of their lives including health services, education, social services, parental involvement, and nutritional guidance. Within 50 years, more than 22 million children have enrolled in the program, mostly by meeting income criteria. The program’s aim is to improve the academic performance and intellectual capacity of children from low-income families (Bailey & Duquette, 2014). The program prepares underprivileged children for school and its primary long-term goal is to reduce school drop-out rate.

Researchers working on the effectiveness of early intervention recruited 23 male and 13 female adolescents who had been identified as having intellectual disabilities at a teaching hospital from 2001 to 2005. The difference between the two tests was used as an indicator of the effectiveness of early intervention. The research showed that the implementation of an early prevention program leads to improved academic achievement, intelligence, social behavior, and self-esteem. The research also found that early intervention programs can improve the IQ of children with intellectual disabilities, and the earlier the children are exposed to intervention programs, the better (Lai, Chiang, Hou, Liu, Yao, Guo, & Tseng, 2014).

One another successful early intervention program is My Baby & Me. Some states’ family and children’s services departments offer this early intervention program for adolescent and adult mothers. Trained professionals (e.g., nurses) meet with mothers, many of whom are teenagers from low-income background and who also belong to high-risk population groups. These meetings occur during pregnancy and when the child reaches the age of 24–36 months. During the visits, mothers receive support and information about environmental hazards, substance abuse, conduct problems, and nutrition for themselves and their children. Parenting is crucial for the healthy childhood development, and professionals conducting home visits usually demonstrate good parenting behaviors to mothers (Guttentag, Landry, Williams, Baggett, Noria, Borkowski, & Ramey, 2014).

A relationship exists between antisocial behaviors and impulse control problems such as aggression and anger. Parental and family factors such as large family size tend to lead to reduced parental monitoring and influence, allowing peers to exert strong influence on children. In addition, parental economic difficulties and depression can lead to a lack of teenage nurturing and, consequently, increased negative peer relations (Olds, Kitzman, Knudtson, Anson, Smith, & Cole, 2014). Delinquency acts tend to increase with a rise in the risk factors. A relationship also exists between increased parental negligence and other risk factors and future violence. To prevent delinquency, nurturing and effective discipline are necessary.

The purpose of home visitation programs is to improve parenting. The effects of visitations are reduced child maltreatment, family size, closed-spaced pregnancies, and reduced probability of tobacco smoking and substance abuse during pregnancy. Nurses have also reported home visits lead to lower levels of irritability among infants. In addition, improved diet and reduced maternal smoking result in better temperaments in children. Other benefits of visitations include fewer social problems and improved academic performance, healthcare encounters, school readiness, and educational and employment opportunities.

Interventions also target children, adolescents, and young adults who live or work on the streets. According to Coren, Hossain, Pardo, Veras, Chakraborty, Harris, & Martin (2013), some youths stay in homeless shelters, others return to their families, and some undergo human trafficking or forced labor. Intervention programs for such youths in the juvenile system are intended to increase their literacy, promote a healthy lifestyle, facilitate access to education, job opportunities, and training, reduce the risks resulting from exposure to street life such as substance abuse and early sexual activity, and foster a sense of inclusion in the society. Social inclusion of these youths includes equal access to an acceptable standard of living, respect for cultural diversity, and efforts to reduce inequality (Coren et al., 2013). Children should live in an environment which supports recreation, spiritual and personal growth, physical safety, nutrition, counselling, medical care, and economic opportunities. Interventions that may improve the lives of children on the streets include vocational training and family therapy. In particular, HIV prevention programs aim to increase knowledge about sexually transmitted diseases and the risk factors behind it such as engaging in unprotected sex or sexual intercourse with multiple partners and sharing needles while using drugs.

Coren et al. (2013) conducted a three-part, three-month study to determine how the intervention programs that target street youths improve family functioning and found that intervention programs are positively linked to family cohesion. An analysis of mental and behavioral health after six months showed that the intervention programs had reduced participants’ depression levels. However, the analysis did not find a reduction in criminal delinquency after 12 months. Moreover, the psychological functioning also remained the same after the intervention.

Although few studies have investigated the impact of preventive interventions on the overall protection of the community, research indicates community-based interventions can help prevent behavioral and health problems among youth (Oesterle, Hawkins, Fagan, Abbott, & Catalano, 2014). Designers of these programs aim to reach and influence all youths in communities equally. Oesterle et al. (2010) examined the Communities That Care (CTC) program which is aimed at preventing substance use, minimizing various delinquent behaviors, and helping communities promote the development of healthy youth and reduce violence, drug use, teenage pregnancy, delinquency, and school dropout. The planning and management of prevention activities in CTC occur at the community level. After studying 4,407 student participants, Oesterle et al. (2014) found that CTC reduced drug and substance abuse and delinquent behaviors. According to Welsh and Farrington (2012), CTC consists of five stages:

• An assessment of the community’s preparedness regarding collaborative prevention efforts
• Formation of a diverse prevention coalition which is representative of all community members
• Use of epidemiologic data to assess prevention needs and to identify protective and high-risk factors related to substance abuse
• Selection of evidence-based programs and prevention policies targeting local needs
• Implementation of new programs and policies to meet the set objectives

Shapiro, Oesterle, and Hawkins (2015) also evaluated the CTC program using data from 12 coalitions who followed community prevention strategies. Researchers assessed CTC members’ organizational linkages, prevention knowledge, attitudes towards CTC, acquisition of new skills, and means of influencing organizations. The results indicated that the communities developed capacities such as knowledge acquisition and networking, thus, the intervention programs had a high probability of succeeding (Shapiro et al., 2014). Coalition capacities enable the wider adoption of science-based prevention strategies for success (Shapiro et al., 2014).

Kim, Oesterle, Catalano, and Hawkins (2015) concluded community initiatives that boost protective factors should start at an early stage. According to Kim et al. (2014), CTC programs improve social skills development, prosocial peer interaction, and involvement in school as well as the community. Horn, Fagan, Hawkins, and Oesterle (2014) concluded on the basis of an analysis of data from 14,099 students in grades 8–10 that CTC led to reduced alcohol intake among 10^th-grade students.

Gender-Responsive Treatments for Female Adolescents with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Female youth have different prevalence rates of emotional and behavioral disorders such as depression and anxiety due to increased internalizing behaviors (Srsic & Rice, 2011). Few researchers have examined the female-specific experiences and characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders. Consequently, female and male intervention programs are mostly the same. However, the literature on female-specific mental behavioral characteristics has been growing. One existing intervention strategy is to use support groups to enhance female youths’ emotional development. For example, the Girls Study Group and the OJJDP have attempted to understand female delinquency patterns and gaps in the related research as well as identify ways to implement effective interventions and effectively communicate research findings. Girls Circles, another intervention strategy, aims to create positive relationships. This program focuses on female development needs and mentors female participants ages 9–18 in support groups. Welch-Brewer, Stoddard-Dare, and Mallett (2011) argued it is crucial to identify disorders early and conduct gender-focused treatments.

Feminist Criminology Theory

Given the gender differences in male and female crime, feminist criminology theory studies criminal justice and crime to understand how gender and sex shape the social world (Chesney-Lind, 1988). There are certain beliefs which guide feminist criminology inquiry:

1. Gender includes diverse historical, social, and cultural products and is not restricted to biological sex differences.
2. Gender and gender relations order social institutions and life in basic ways.
3. Gender relations and the elements of femininity and masculinity are not symmetrical. They embody the principle that men are superior and should socially and politically dominate women.
4. Current systems of knowledge reflect how men view the social and natural worlds.
5. Women must be at the center of intellectual inquiry.

Feminist criminology scholars examine the nature of gender relations and how they function. Feminist criminology scholars view gender as highly important to understanding crime and criminality. This research makes women the focus of inquiry to build on existing knowledge.

Summary

This review of current and relevant literature is intended to provide scholarly and descriptive insights into gender-responsive approaches for handling female delinquents. The research questions in this qualitative, multiple case study center on the lived experiences of the case managers and the ability of the treatments to rehabilitate female offenders, reduce recidivism among them, and promote their successful transition into the communities. The literature review revealed the gaps in the empirical research exploring the experiences of female delinquents as they transition into the communities after rehabilitation. The literature review also examined feminist criminology theory.

Chapter 3 discusses the approach, method, and the design of the present research. The description also focuses on the study sample as well as the data collection and analytic processes employed.

Chapter 3:

Research Design and Methods

Data

This study is concerned with the necessity for gender-based prevention and intervention juvenile delinquency programs. It will be conducted using personal interviews which will cover the successes and failures of the gender-based programs within the Western Texas Juvenile Detention Programs. The success of the programs would be reflected in the female delinquent becoming a law-abiding and employed citizen of the society, displaying no further signs of continued delinquent behavior. The failure of the program would be reflected in the inability of a female delinquent to live as a productive citizen of the society and her continuous displays of delinquent behaviors. The researcher will utilize the collected data from the interview sessions to provide further insights concerning the need for gender-based prevention and intervention programs within the juvenile justice system.

Participants

I plan to interview case managers who have direct contact with predominately female adolescents within a West Texas’ Juvenile Justice Detention Center. The case managers that choose to participate in this research will be engaged in the field of juvenile justice. The complete list of potential interviewees and their job titles will be depicted via an Appendix. I will inquire about the programs’ curriculum and success and failure rates among their female participants. I will initiate contact with the prospective interviewees in-person with a consent form to confirm their interest in the research project.

The qualitative data, gathered through in-person recorded interviews, from case managers with at least one year of experience with juvenile justice in TX, will produce diverse perspectives and various methods to improve the gender-responsive prevention and intervention programs. The interviews will focus on the participants’ experiences with the processes, procedures, necessity of incorporating gender-based programs, and treatments. Furthermore, the interview will focus on the history of gender-based programs, their curriculum, and overall assessment of their performance.

Materials

Each participant will be provided with a consent form and advised that the interviews will be recorded. All protocol will be vetted and approved through the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The names and any information that may identify the interviewees will be kept confidential throughout the report via code names.

Procedure

The researcher will review data collected via interviews to generate a summary of relevancy. Themes and codes pertaining to the research will be identified for further analysis.

The interviews will be conducted at the site choice of the interviewee. Before participating, interviewees will be provided information on the purpose of the study and will also receive a briefing on the possible implications of the study. Upon the completion of the interviews, the recordings will be transcribed and interview notes will be typed.

The inductive approach will be used to analyze the interviewees’ transcripts and questionnaire notes to identify patterns and themes introduced during data collection (Patton, 1980). Furthermore, I will use the comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990) to review transcribed interviews and questionnaire notes line-by-line and analyze sentences and paragraph segments to determine appropriate codes revealed by the data. The interview data will have greater weight in the analysis than that of the document reviews. Each code will be compared to all other codes to identify likes, differences, and general patterns.

In summary, data will be reduced and analyzed by means of thematic codes and concepts in a three-level process. Themes will gradually emerge as a result of becoming intimate with the data, making logical associations with the interview questions, and considering what was learned during the initial literature review. These emerging themes and patterns, together with substantive feminist criminology theory focused collaboration, will become the major findings of my study.

Study Design

The qualitative approach of multiple-case studies will be utilized. Tellis (1997) described a case study as a qualitative strategy in which researchers make general or theorized findings based on interaction with and views of participants during a study. This approach will enable the researcher to:

(a) Evaluate change and present innovation

(b) Include diverse perspectives

(c) Have flexibility in collecting the data.

This study will include interviews and reviews of historical program curriculum documents. I will outline topics of discussion to be addressed during the interviews and historical program curriculum documents review to minimize biases. Additionally, I will pursue flexibility to ensure my questions are worded appropriately, depending upon the participants. I will explore the participants’ responses as necessary to enable a natural flow of conversation. I will also note potential mistakes that may occur during the data-collecting process such as the bias of the interviewer(s) and unintentional errors during transcription or coding (Tellis, 1997).

The qualitative method is the best method for the study because it will allow the researcher to collect data about the programs within the criminal justice system. Furthermore, the qualitative method will allow me to develop trust and rapport, thus, increasing the prospects of other favorable opportunities such as one-to-one interaction with the staff members. Additionally, the opportunity to observe the historical successes and failures and other aspects of the programs is present, thus, enhancing developmental findings and theories and improving research quality.

Using a qualitative, multiple-case approach, this study will focus on perceptions of the necessity for gender-based treatment programs for juvenile delinquent females. The study will also reflect upon the importance of gender-based treatment services and programs towards reduced adjudication and recidivism rates among juvenile females as well as successful transition into the society. The methods of data collection will include case managers’ interviews and a review of available curriculum documents pertaining to the programs.

As I review the curriculum documents, I will look for similarities. Before conducting the interviews with the case managers, I will establish a rapport and gain their trust; I will provide the necessary background about the research. The preferred method is to ask open-ended questions which give the opportunity to gain an in-depth understanding of the underlying topic. This approach will also make it easier to analyze and compare notes. As I review documents and receive information concerning programs’ curriculum, I will compare the materials about the programs for juvenile delinquents who are enrolled and determine the impact of the programs on the participants. This review will provide specific information concerning processes which work and processes which do not work.

This study will present key factors concerning the programs’ methods used to treat juvenile delinquents and determine whether the results are influenced by the delinquent’s gender. Furthermore, it will also research perceptions of factors necessary to increase the success rate of gender-based programs established for juvenile delinquents within the juvenile justice system. This study’s use of the term adolescent refers to youths between the ages of 12 and 17. Additionally, the programs reviewed refer to West Texas Juvenile Detention Programs.

The overall goal is to determine whether gender-based programs improve efforts to rehabilitate male and female juvenile delinquents while also reducing the recidivism rate among juvenile offenders making them more productive members of the society. The West Texas’ Detention Center has been chosen because it embraces the gender-based program for its male and female residents. The participants will be case managers (staff members) having experience, of at least a year, dealing with gender-based delinquents.

These facilities will be evaluated holistically, with focus on their programs, particularly, gender-based ones and program curriculums. The sampling base is purposeful sampling. Furthermore, typical case sampling will be used to evaluate the Detention Programs (Suri, 2011). This study will utilize the cooperation of case managers who can identify the typical, average, or excellent implemented programs or treatments for male and female delinquents. I will review and analyze trends in the historical program curriculum documents and validate my sampling choice. This overall sampling strategy and size should yield the necessary information to support the inference that poor juvenile intervention programs are relevant to the recidivism rates among juvenile offenders, both male and female, due to the programs’ inability to implement appropriate intervening factors.

In this study, interviewing and reviewing historical program curriculum documents are appropriate because they will enhance the ability to assess the effectiveness of Detention’s facilities programs. Moreover, the interview data collection approach will enable me to ask open-ended questions that support my research questions and seek clarity concerning the responses as necessary. Interviewing is an invaluable approach; it helps provide reinforcement of the data attained through experienced observations noted by the case managers.

I will document via transcription and record the interview participants, as permitted. Recording will enable me to document everything that might not have been noted via transcripts, providing additional means to maintaining my collected data (Tellis, 1997).

Sample

My interest is in reviewing the responsiveness to gender-based programs among female and male juvenile delinquents and the importance of implementing them in juvenile delinquency treatment services. In light of the purposeful sampling, I have chosen these facilities to afford better understanding of the research problem and the phenomenon of the study. The sample will be defined as a West Texas Detention Center. The sampling units are the programs within the Detention Center, particularly, the gender-based programs.

Sampling Procedure

The intended research will consist of typical case-sampling strategy. A typical case-sampling is most appropriate; it will facilitate comparing the operations and structured objectives of gender-based programs while providing valuable insights into the need of gender-based programs. Since I will include at least two programs, a typical case sampling will allow for sufficiency in my sample population (Suri, 2011).

The sampling procedures will be collected via purposeful selection; the site and individuals have been selected for this proposed study (Suri, 2011). The intent of purposefully selecting is to identify and select case managers, documents, etc., that best provide understanding of the problem or research questions at hand. This procedure allows the researcher to collect data from various sources. All aspects of this study will be volunteer-based and limited to five participants. The disadvantage to conducting a purposeful sampling procedure is the possibility of research data saturation during the early stages of the interviews (Suri, 2011). The intent to use open-ended questions will mitigate early saturation and create opportunity for additional information throughout the interview process.

This study is not intended as a longitudinal study but it does not negate the fact that retaining the participants is important; therefore, contact numbers and addresses will be obtained from each participant in order to allow follow-up.

This study’s focus, development of gender-based programs that service juvenile delinquents, while providing means of rehabilitating and decreasing recidivism, may motivate the key stakeholders of the West Texas Detention Center and the participants to reform the gender-responsive programs within the juvenile justice department.

Proposed Instrumentation

This study will consist of qualitative interviews that will take place in-person. All interviews will consist of open-ended questions; all will have the same topics. This will allow the researcher to obtain historical information. If the participants feel uncomfortable at any point during the interview, they will have the right to stop the interview or dismiss themselves at their own discretion. Furthermore, the participants can also decline to respond to any questions they may not be comfortable with. The participants will be allowed to respond at their own pace, in order to create a comfortable environment for fluent communication. This small sample size may not mean that all programs warrant reformation; however, it may warrant that all programs’ curriculums are reviewed.

Validity

All research presents potential threats of validity. The validity threats in this research include interviewer bias and coding (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Denzin and Lincoln (2011) noted two forms of threats to validity, (a) internal and (b) external. They referred to internal validity threats as experiences, experiments, or treatment of the participants that may threaten the researcher’s ability to complete his or her research. With this in mind, I must note my study presents an internal threat to the validity of my research; I have no control over the individuals choosing to stay or leave midstream during the study. To counter this threat, the participant pool will consist of 10 participants. Denzin and Lincoln (2011) defined external validity threats as threats that infer erroneous conclusions based on the sample, setting, or timing of the study. The identified external threat to validity of the study includes generalization of the results; to reduce this threat, I will have to ensure that I am cognizance of possible biases and stereotypes. Additionally, I must ensure that I am aware of the importance of the interviewees’ body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions while conducting interviews. To further enhance the study’s validity, I must also be aware of social desirability and the possibility of the participants altering their responses to conform to what they think I want to hear. To prevent transcribing errors and possibly increase the comfort level of the participant, each interview will be recorded.

Reliability

Denzin and Lincoln (2011) defined reliability as the ability of the researcher to ensure that consistency is maintained throughout my interviews, as much as possible. In doing so, I will ensure that the interview topics are the same per interviewee and incorporate a follow-up meeting among all to discuss findings. This will enhance the consistency among all stakeholders and increase the reliability of the data (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Conclusion

Significance

The goal of the research is to examine perceptions of the effects current treatment programs have on rehabilitating delinquent juveniles and investigate whether these programs can be reformed by including gender-based treatment and services. This could lead to decreased juvenile delinquency and reduced recidivism rates in America, particularly among females. The study will focus on two areas: (a) programs’ curriculums and (b) treatment programs’ success or failure rates.

The information gathered in both focus areas will provide the necessary data to determine which treatments or services work best on the basis of the gender of the delinquents. This knowledge will provide the justice system and social services communities with an opportunity to reform the juvenile delinquency treatment programs as necessary, resulting in reduced recidivism and delinquency rates among juveniles.

Ethical Concerns

            There are several ethical concerns related to this study pertaining to the research participants’ welfare and rights to privacy. I will protect the participants’ welfare and rights to privacy pertaining to the American Counseling Association’s (ACA) Code of Ethics and the Code of Ethics for Social Scientists. Initially, I will send a copy of this proposal to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) to seek approval for conducting this research. Second, any information that is disseminated during the course of this research study will be reviewed to ensure that participants remain anonymous and their information remains confidential (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

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